CASCACascade Atlas

Evidence dossier

CVE-2016-3081

Apache Struts 2.3.19 to 2.3.20.2, 2.3.21 to 2.3.24.1, and 2.3.25 to 2.3.28, when Dynamic Method Invocation is enabled, allow remote attackers to execute arbitrary code via…

Exploited in the wild (CISA KEV since Oct 8, 2026). NVD reports CVSS 3.1 8.1. EPSS estimates 96.1% exploit likelihood as of Oct 21, 2026.

79.9–94.0Priority evidence range
Evidence through Oct 22, 2026, 6:07 PM UTC

As of Oct 22, 2026

Normalized restatement

Apache Struts 2.3.19 to 2.3.20.2, 2.3.21 to 2.3.24.1, and 2.3.25 to 2.3.28, when Dynamic Method Invocation is enabled, allow remote attackers to execute arbitrary code via method: prefix, related to chained expressions.

State
PUBLISHED
Published
Apr 26, 2016
Updated
Oct 9, 2026
Evidence coverage
85%

Evidence chronology

What was known when

Download this view's receipt →
  1. Source dateFirst observed by CASCA
    CISA KEV

    Exploitation cataloged: Apache Struts Command Injection Vulnerability

    Inspect raw assertion
    Field
    observed_exploitation
    Value
    Apache Struts Command Injection Vulnerability
    Original evidence ↗
  2. Source dateSource date omittedFirst observed by CASCA
    CISA-ADP

    Record text: CISA ADP Vulnrichment

    Inspect raw assertion
    Field
    container
    Value
    CISA ADP Vulnrichment
    Original evidence ↗
  3. Source dateSource date omittedFirst observed by CASCA
    CVE Program

    Record text: CVE Program Container

    Inspect raw assertion
    Field
    container
    Value
    CVE Program Container
    Original evidence ↗
  4. Source dateSource date omittedFirst observed by CASCA
    redhat

    Record text: Apache Struts 2.3.19 to 2.3.20.2, 2.3.21 to 2.3.24.1, and 2.3.25 to 2.3.28, when Dynamic Method Invocation is enabled, allow remote attackers to execute arbitrary code via method: prefix, related to chained expressions.

    Inspect raw assertion
    Field
    container
    Value
    Apache Struts 2.3.19 to 2.3.20.2, 2.3.21 to 2.3.24.1, and 2.3.25 to 2.3.28, when Dynamic Method Invocation is enabled, allow remote attackers to execute arbitrary code via method: prefix, related to chained expressions.
    Original evidence ↗
  5. Source dateFirst observed by CASCA
    FIRST EPSS

    EPSS score: 96.05% probability · 99.88th percentile

    Inspect raw assertion
    Field
    model_probability
    Value
    Probability 0.960520000000; percentile 0.998790000000
    Original evidence ↗
ExploitationCatalog member

CISA KEV · catalog date Oct 8, 2026 · first observed Oct 9, 2026

Exploit likelihood96.05%

FIRST EPSS · score date Oct 21, 2026 · 99.9th percentile · first observed Oct 21, 2026

SeverityCVSS 8.1

NVD · CVSS 3.1 · first observed Oct 9, 2026 · same-version scores align in this snapshot

Evidence detail

Source limits and decisions

Why each evidence state has this value

Outside this view’s verified evidence

Reason detail begins outside this selected snapshot; the state remains source-bound.

Source comparison

Who said what

CISA KEVOriginal assertion
Exploitation cataloged

Apache Struts Command Injection Vulnerability

Inspect raw assertion
Field
observed_exploitation
Value
Apache Struts Command Injection Vulnerability
Source dateFirst observed by CASCAOriginal evidence ↗
CISA-ADPIndependent enrichment
Record text

CISA ADP Vulnrichment

Inspect raw assertion
Field
container
Value
CISA ADP Vulnrichment
Source dateSource date omittedFirst observed by CASCAOriginal evidence ↗
CVE ProgramDerivative copy
Record text

CVE Program Container

Inspect raw assertion
Field
container
Value
CVE Program Container
Source dateSource date omittedFirst observed by CASCAOriginal evidence ↗
redhatOriginal assertion
Record text

Apache Struts 2.3.19 to 2.3.20.2, 2.3.21 to 2.3.24.1, and 2.3.25 to 2.3.28, when Dynamic Method Invocation is enabled, allow remote attackers to execute arbitrary code via method: prefix, related to chained expressions.

Inspect raw assertion
Field
container
Value
Apache Struts 2.3.19 to 2.3.20.2, 2.3.21 to 2.3.24.1, and 2.3.25 to 2.3.28, when Dynamic Method Invocation is enabled, allow remote attackers to execute arbitrary code via method: prefix, related to chained expressions.
Source dateSource date omittedFirst observed by CASCAOriginal evidence ↗
FIRST EPSSOriginal assertion
EPSS score

96.05% probability · 99.88th percentile

Inspect raw assertion
Field
model_probability
Value
Probability 0.960520000000; percentile 0.998790000000
Source dateFirst observed by CASCAOriginal evidence ↗

Applicability

Cited product scope

Trace impact →
57Underlying assertions
2Canonical products
57Target assertions
0Constraint assertions

Grouped from 2 configuration nodes in this exact snapshot. Visual grouping is navigational; asset exposure and root cause require cited evidence.

Identity source boundaries
  • Cpe dictionary1,775,266 records · observed through 2026-07-21T06:45:29.809Z27d65b0f-b718-4b4f-bb79-c47c68d09dfa
  • Cpe match643,502 records · observed through 2026-07-21T08:13:17.697Z955dae73-7302-438b-aee1-058d7cc5d48e

3 scope groups

redhat · source assertedn/an/aDirect source scope
Affected: n/a
Source-reported scope

Canonical linkage remains open; the cited source assertion is retained below.

Inspect raw assertion[{"status": "affected", "version": "n/a"}]
NVD CPE · APPLICATIONapachestrutsVulnerable target · 56 assertions
Version 2.0.0; Version 2.0.1; Version 2.0.10; Version 2.0.11; Version 2.0.11.1; Version 2.0.11.2; Version 2.0.12; Version 2.0.13; Version 2.0.14; Version 2.0.2; Version 2.0.3; Version 2.0.4; Version 2.0.5; Version 2.0.6; Version 2.0.7; Version 2.0.8; Version 2.0.9; Version 2.1.0; Version 2.1.1; Version 2.1.2; Version 2.1.3; Version 2.1.4; Version 2.1.5; Version 2.1.6; Version 2.1.8; Version 2.1.8.1; Version 2.2.1; Version 2.2.1.1; Version 2.2.3; Version 2.2.3.1; Version 2.3.1; Version 2.3.1.1; Version 2.3.1.2; Version 2.3.12; Version 2.3.14; Version 2.3.14.1; Version 2.3.14.2; Version 2.3.14.3; Version 2.3.15; Version 2.3.15.1; Version 2.3.15.2; Version 2.3.15.3; Version 2.3.16; Version 2.3.16.1; Version 2.3.16.2; Version 2.3.16.3; Version 2.3.20; Version 2.3.20.1; Version 2.3.24; Version 2.3.24.1; Version 2.3.28; Version 2.3.3; Version 2.3.4; Version 2.3.4.1; Version 2.3.7; Version 2.3.8Canonical identity product-9cd0052bcd831ad951c3a83f953006d77d3ff2278903b02b620cad9fb02389e0Linked exact
Scope supported
Inspect raw assertions
  1. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.16.2:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 49
    Logic
    OR
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    1225a0b0-c3f2-4579-bfe9-f8db2cf596f6
  2. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.1.2:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 19
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    4e720b3a-4cfb-47fe-b80c-67c59d4c7fd4
  3. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.3:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 33
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    a92aae08-4811-465a-8178-25f5f349b8ba
  4. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.2.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 26
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    fa9093c0-ae6a-4285-b159-8fdbf37e33d7
  5. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.2.1.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 27
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    267a1c33-1c95-41da-8a01-6f20c7be1772
  6. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.1.5:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 22
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    2b7e8e1c-c667-4aed-86a5-2bd0c62aad76
  7. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.12:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 14
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    50f4a58e-f3d4-4711-a37e-ea538b112371
  8. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.15.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 44
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    ebb91d8a-14b8-4263-b90d-f776535f9b8f
  9. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.14:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 16
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    dea0424e-84b4-41bd-8e6c-93e2a77dd6ca
  10. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.15:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 43
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    44527919-8403-42a8-9ce1-3b4f58630f34
  11. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 1
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    be3a90b7-c632-4d3e-9a4f-21e46d273b42
  12. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.4:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 4
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    dfa32d87-65c7-4589-86b7-500be3203cfa
  13. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.4:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 34
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    b487975d-6394-4136-b45c-c1f209465b24
  14. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.15.2:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 45
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    fb525941-7175-43c1-9f17-814f5f7c72ca
  15. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.10:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 10
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    ac32348e-7ef4-411c-9a44-cd041abfa0e2
  16. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.8:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 8
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    d9c89e22-b106-4eab-90a1-0ea86c165737
  17. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.14.3:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 42
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    d25ed06a-f12c-443e-9b3f-fddf52fe9d93
  18. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.14.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 40
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    41f43088-26aa-4890-a9d6-1b9b48d5f02a
  19. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.8:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 37
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    2481505c-4fd1-4195-9e10-9dd741498fb2
  20. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.24.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 54
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    45446b16-f531-4c6d-b889-a8a6622c70a2
  21. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.14.2:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 41
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    be6820e3-8fdf-4bdf-8b62-e604a91f1280
  22. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.28:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 55
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    c778aded-75b5-4ad3-8cdc-efdffad5a742
  23. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.9:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 9
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    6e1babb2-780e-47e0-87a9-a164906c8421
  24. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.1.4:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 21
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    0bc0e358-8b4d-480b-bfae-966cb697310a
  25. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.15.3:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 46
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    f10d559e-04a0-4002-947c-d3902138795b
  26. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.14:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 39
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    38a6ceed-6c43-4325-b36c-9f254ccdfdc0
  27. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.2.3.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 29
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    OR
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    30860683-d403-4d24-b356-fd306aefca46
  28. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.2.3:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 28
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    7e4590b9-6a44-4dc6-b7df-5e6caaa9d25a
  29. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.20.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 52
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    6d1467bc-9bc8-402d-a420-615cf9698648
  30. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.5:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 5
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    98c3fb11-4e24-4067-a3a9-021f849daae3
  31. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.1.6:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 23
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    88b3348c-1086-4a16-97e3-52db65ff860a
  32. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.1.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 31
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    Match ID
    0d152b29-fad5-4dea-b187-278ebd37feb4
  33. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.1.8:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 24
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    3c65711d-9c5b-4644-a12d-82243cb6fb1e
  34. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.12:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 38
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    Match ID
    28ed63db-2aaf-4bc9-a844-074edf63c89a
  35. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.11.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 12
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    acfdc53b-7b8e-4333-bc87-e01024ec9c21
  36. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.3:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 3
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    b4cf15b9-3714-4206-9971-1f7d59e20483
  37. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.2:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 2
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    Match ID
    386538be-f258-4870-8e11-750ada228026
  38. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.20:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 51
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    Match ID
    22ff6282-0bca-46eb-9648-6ee3eda189f2
  39. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.16:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 47
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    89203dd8-2c95-4546-9504-83654ffa5dbc
  40. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.0:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 0
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    Match ID
    5cf11dcf-6f6e-4e18-988e-e43918fbb8a6
  41. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.1.8.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 25
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    OR
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    fc1fa9a7-2c8e-4651-9400-190198528642
  42. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.11.2:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 13
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    9f0818e7-b617-4c30-bfac-9fe2f375f8bd
  43. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.7:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 36
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    443b4e64-2a36-49c6-b09d-77b3bdf69709
  44. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.4.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
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    0 · node/0 · match 35
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    bdc41957-8cca-46a6-bd31-4039eef3c457
  45. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.1.3:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 20
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    ca687b56-a09b-4741-84f1-2bd9569a3f76
  46. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.1.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 18
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    662a2e4b-a76a-4498-98a6-f90df65c62b7
  47. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.11:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 11
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    OR
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    94bd452b-ae41-4f7a-9db9-4b1039582537
  48. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.16.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 48
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    eb3d5644-cfac-4fb5-a1fb-387f97876098
  49. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.6:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
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    0 · node/0 · match 6
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    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    4dcf2d72-90f1-4d1b-94a2-5bb3d8c086c2
  50. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.1.0:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
    Linked exact
    Role
    Vulnerable target
    Configuration
    0 · node/0 · match 17
    Logic
    OR
    Version bounds
    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    cec53ae5-3640-4fe1-b0b1-ea26c5b9eb9b
  51. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.13:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
    Linked exact
    Role
    Vulnerable target
    Configuration
    0 · node/0 · match 15
    Logic
    OR
    Version bounds
    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    effcc96f-fd87-4495-b8a5-19d7898d5662
  52. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.0.7:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
    Linked exact
    Role
    Vulnerable target
    Configuration
    0 · node/0 · match 7
    Logic
    OR
    Version bounds
    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    661f1610-9fcd-4fc1-bca1-69c58e0a1389
  53. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
    Linked exact
    Role
    Vulnerable target
    Configuration
    0 · node/0 · match 30
    Logic
    OR
    Version bounds
    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    4e3316da-9e34-4955-91ca-e35b141a7007
  54. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.1.2:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
    Linked exact
    Role
    Vulnerable target
    Configuration
    0 · node/0 · match 32
    Logic
    OR
    Version bounds
    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    2ac68463-f500-471c-8600-8f8fd9743b12
  55. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.16.3:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
    Linked exact
    Role
    Vulnerable target
    Configuration
    0 · node/0 · match 50
    Logic
    OR
    Version bounds
    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    8dc883a7-0766-4857-abc8-9db4ba713650
  56. cpe:2.3:a:apache:struts:2.3.24:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
    Linked exact
    Role
    Vulnerable target
    Configuration
    0 · node/0 · match 53
    Logic
    OR
    Version bounds
    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    524c5119-416d-413b-bf1d-29291e23fdb2
NVD CPE · APPLICATIONoraclesiebel_e-billingVulnerable target · 1 assertions
Version 7.1Canonical identity product-00018cb8518b70c2be23ce78ada68e8491e44746d4ca63c397052dc99e59b78aLinked exact
Scope supported
Inspect raw assertion
  1. cpe:2.3:a:oracle:siebel_e-billing:7.1:*:*:*:*:*:*:*
    Official link
    Linked exact
    Role
    Vulnerable target
    Configuration
    1 · node/0 · match 0
    Logic
    OR
    Version bounds
    No explicit bounds
    Match ID
    fb16fa05-8486-4e04-9745-0ee28458fda0

Affected-product evidence

Accepted scope and product mapping

0 canonical links · 0 source-reported links

Applicability remains source-scoped; safety and exposure remain unassessed.

Assessments

CVSS by origin

8.1
NVDCVSS 3.1 · role Primary · priority eligiblevalid_matchCVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H
9.3
NVDCVSS 2.0 · role Primary · priority eligiblevalid_matchAV:N/AC:M/Au:N/C:C/I:C/A:C
8.1
CVE Program sourceCVSS 3.1 · role Secondary · priority eligiblevalid_matchCVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H
8.1
CISA-ADPCVSS 3.1 · role unknown · display onlyDirect record assessment retained outside normalized eligibilityCVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H

Evidence boundaries

  • KEV membership is authoritative for the catalog, not proof of exposure in any environment.
  • EPSS is a dated model probability and not an individual-environment prediction.
  • Affected or fixed status applies only to the exact cited product and version scope; remaining scope stays source-scoped.
  • NVD-carried upstream facts remain derivative; independent corroboration requires a separately authored source.
  • Only NVD metrics validated under the generation-bound calculator are Public Priority eligible; direct CVE record metrics remain display-only.
  • NVD CVSS source eligibility is closed: NVD-authored, exact record-source, or registered same-CVE container origin; unmapped sources remain display-only.
  • Affected-product evidence remains source-scoped; canonical linkage is required before applicability scoring.
  • Core replay supports the active and immediately prior generation; retrospective valid-at replay is deferred.
  • OSV aggregation and OSV-converted NVD material are not independent corroboration.
  • Red Hat facts are vendor assertions for the exact supplied products.
  • Nonmembership and not-yet-observed states are not proof of safety.